Segueing from the discussions about how knowledge is represented and organized, one can ask questions about how language itself, both its existence and use, affect both the knowledge we have, and how we use that knowledge.

Does language affect how our knowledge of the world is organized?

Linguistic relativity (Sapir-Whorf hypothesis):

Claims that the language you speak actually determines the structure of your cognitive system, and thus how you perceive and think about the world.

• South Pacific islanders and color chips.
• Bedouin words for "camel"
• Inuit words for "snow" (?)
• McGurk effect?

Maybe language just influences, rather than determines, how you process information in the world.

• Verbal labels on pictures

• Eyewitness testimony effects

• What else?

Are there universal patterns across all (or most) languages with regards to how they divide up the environment?

Color naming:

It appears that color naming has consistent properties across a large number of languages —

• 11 basic color names: black, white, gray, brown, pink, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and purple.

• Standard hierarchy for dividing up the spectrum:

1. Black & white
2. Red
3. Yellow, green, & blue
4. Brown
5. Purple, pink, orange, & gray

Do people who speak more than one language think differently from those of us who speak only one?

Additive vs. Subtractive bilingualism:

Additive — The second language is building on the foundation of a very fluent first language.

Subtractive — The second language interferes with the use of the first language.

Age

How is the information for the two languages organized and represented in the mind?

Single-system hypothesis:

The two languages are represented in one language system that is responsible for all aspects of both languages.

Dual-system hypothesis:

Claims that there exists two completely separate systems responsible for all the processes of each language.

Alternative notion:

Neuropsychological data is unclear. Sometimes you get impairments with the first language, sometimes with the second, sometimes with both. Why?

(See Sternberg, Fig. 10.3)

There is evidence that people are very naturally inclined to use language to communicate. Pidgins and Creoles are stages along the route to development of a new language that can occur when cultures with different languages come into contact.

Pidgin: Has a shared vocabulary between two languages, but each language group retains its own syntax.

Creole: Next stage. Shared vocabulary remains, but begins to develop its own distinct grammar.

These differ from dialects.

Dialect: When a sub-group within a language group develops its own features.

What can speech errors tell us about how language is represented and produced?

Slips of the tongue: Six main types

• Anticipation: Using a speech element too early

• Perseveration: Using a speech element too late

• Substitution: Replacing a speech element inappropriately

• Reversal: (spoonerism) Transposing two speech elements

• Insertions: Inserting inappropriate speech elements
• Deletions: Deleting necessary speech elements

We all use metaphors and idioms, and we generally expect people to understand. How do we understand metaphors?

Comparison theory: We understand a metaphor based on the similarities between the tenor and the vehicle.

Anomaly theory: We understand a metaphor based on the differences between the tenor and vehicle.

Domain-interaction theory: A metaphor is understood in terms of an interaction between the domains of the tenor and vehicle.

Class-inclusion theory: Metaphors are understood in terms of placing the tenor into the same class of objects as the vehicle.

All language has the purpose of transmitting information between people, i.e. getting others to share the same representation of knowledge that you have. How is this accomplished?

Representatives: Statements of belief.

Directives: Statements intended to get someone to do something for you.

Commissives: A statement by you that you will do something.

Expressives: Statements telling people how you feel.

Declarations: A statement that causes some change in the world simply by virtue of its being uttered.

Ways of getting people to do things for you without coming right out and asking them.

When you are having a conversation with someone, you generally want to make it easy for that person to follow what you are saying. This is known as the cooperative principle.

(Note: This excludes lawyers and politicians. They follow the obfuscatory principle.)

Four maxims aide in this cooperation:

1. Maxim of quantity: Say exactly what needs to be said. No more, no less.

2. Maxim of quality: Tell the truth, or at least what you believe to be the truth.

3. Maxim of relation: Make sure you are saying something that has something to do with what everyone else is saying.

4. Maxim of manner: Be clear and concise.